The Devlopment of Modern Africa Essay - 1598 Words

The Development of Modern Africa nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There are over 40 countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the wealth of natural resources and the prevalence of wealth in the northern segments of Africa have led many to speculate about the equity and economic development in the sub-Sahara. Unfortunately, the progression of economic, political and social factors in this region have done little to improve the overall conditions, and have instead demonstrated a consistent bias towards the government and the social elites that has impacted the chances of successful development in the region. Since the end of World War II, changes in the infrastructure, the political forces, and in the capacity for collective action in many of†¦show more content†¦It has been argued that the factors that have led to a lack of efficacy in the economic picture of the sub-Sahara is directly linked to the process of British control. During the era of early colonial rule, British administrators exercised what has been described as â€Å"indirect rule† which was created to maintain military and political control (Berry, 1992). This inherently impacted the conditions of access to land, labor and agricultural tracks which in turn determined the progression of agricultural commercialization and the migration of labor (Berry, 1992). For decades, the struggle to maintain control over a commercial agrarian base and to provide for the distinct call for industrialization has had limited acceptance and widespread opposition to those driving for dictated control. As a result of the issues that emerged during the colonial era, the shaping of government and the development of elite groupings within the social constructs, and subsequently the emerging social conditioning, created inherent inequities between the government and the agrarian labor force (Berry, 1992). Struggles to unite localized native laws and customs and emerging governmental constructs modeled after colonizer perspectives, clearly designed the inequities that would become a major component of the social order. It has been argued that failed efforts to promote stability andShow MoreRelatedUnder Western Eyes by Mohanty1381 Words   |  6 Pagescolonialist relations between the north and south(Mohanty 1991:55). She criticises Western feminist discourse for constructing â€Å"the third world woman† as a homogeneous â€Å"powerless† and vulnerable group, while women in the North still represent the modern and liberated woman (Mohanty 1991:56). Mohanty is drawing upon theoretical perspectives of postmodernism to understand difference and by that uncover essentialist and Universalist interpretations (Uduyagiri 1995:159). In particular she is drawingRead MoreMonsanto: Better Living Through Genetic Engineering96204 Words   |  385 Pagesimplants. These notiï ¬ cations actually beneï ¬ ted Cochlear because their major competitor was more directly implicated, but it nevertheless shook the industry. Finally, is it safe for the company to be so dependent on one relatively narrow research and devlopment (RD) focused niche? THE COCHLEAR IMPLANT TECHNOLOGY A cochlear implant is a small electronic device that helps a profoundly (completely) deaf person to have a sense of sound. It is different from a hearing aid because it helps to compensate

Assessing the Marketing Strategy of Payboy Magazine Free Essays

Contents Introduction4 Literature review5 The product life cycle5 Introduction stage5 Growth stage6 Maturity stage6 Decline stage7 MARKET SEGMENTATION8 Attractiveness of a market segment9 Target market strategies9 BRAND10 Building and managing brand equity12 Globalisation13 There are three main international marketing orientations13 Ethics in marketing14 Gender role and marketing14 Generic marketing strategy15 Findings16 The playboy product life cycle16 Market segmentation17 Brand17 Globalization17 Ethics18 Marketing strategy18 Discussion20 Conclusions21 Recommendations21 References22 Introduction A marketing strategy calls for the organization to pull its limited resources to attract the desired market segment and gain some competitive advantage. The positioning of a product is the reason the target segment of the market uses or buys a product based on the attributes of the product which ensure that the product attracts the desired market segment by meeting the product expectations (Wind, 1990). These two strategies are used to attract consumers of all product types. We will write a custom essay sample on Assessing the Marketing Strategy of Payboy Magazine or any similar topic only for you Order Now The magazine industry mainly applies these strategies to attract buyers towards their product. They offer their readers target content by being first segmented into the various types of magazines which include: men, women, news magazines and readers digest. Readers digest offer its readers a wide array of topics of interests without focussing on a specific readership, gender or group of interests. News magazines offer feature news articles usually on topics that have already been discussed in other news media but in a more in-depth sense. Women’s magazines offer articles of interest to women and men’s magazines offer articles of interest to men. Magazines are further segmented under each section to feature topics of interest from decor to cars. One of the more successful men’s magazines Playboy will be discussed in this paper, focussing on, what strategy they applied to achieve their global success. The magazine has been in existence for over, 50years and has stood the test of time. This paper will seek to determine what marketing strategies they applied to achieve their global success. Literature review The product life cycle The product life cycle can be divided into several stages characterised by the revenue generated by the product. A PLC depicts the stages that the product goes through during its life time. The PLC is made up of the following stages: Introduction stage When the product is introduced, sales will be low until customers become aware of the product and its benefits. Advertising costs are typically high during this stage in order to rapidly increase customer awareness of the product and to target the early adopters. During the introductory stage the firm is likely to incur additional costs associated wit the initial distribution of the product. These higher costs coupled wit low sales volume usually make the introduction stage a period of negative profits. During the introduction stage, the goal is to establish a market and build primary demand for the product class. The introductory stage comprises of the following marketing mix components: Price – the price will be generally high, assuming a skim pricing strategy for a high profit margin as the early adopters buy the product and the firm seeks to recoup development costs quickly. In some instances, a penetration pricing strategy is used and introductory prices are set low to gain market share quickly. Distribution –the distribution is selective and scattered as the firm commences implementation of the distribution plan. Promotion – it is aimed at building brand awareness. Samples or trials may be directed at early adopters. Growth stage This is a stage of rapid revenue growth. Sales increase as more customers become aware of the product and its benefits and additional market segments are targeted. The marketing team may increase its distribution at this point. When competitors enter the market, often during the later part of the growth stage, there may be price competition and or increased promotional costs in order to convince customers that the firm’s product is better than that of the competitor. During the growth stage the goal is to gain consumer preference and increase sales. The marketing mix may be modified as below: Product – new product features and packaging options, improvement of product quality Price – the price may be maintained at a high level if demand is high or reduced to capture additional customers. Distribution – at this point, the distribution becomes more intensive. Trade discounts are minimal if resellers sow a strong interest in the product. Promotion – advertising is increased to build brand preference. Maturity stage This is the most profitable stage. While sales continue to increase into this stage, they do so at a slower pace. The brand awareness is strong and so the advertising expenditures will be reduced. Te firm places effort into encouraging competitors’ customers to switch, increasing usage per customer, and converting non users into customers. Sales promotion may be offered to encourage retailers to give the product more shelf space over competing products. During the maturity stage, the goal is to maintain market share and extend the product life cycle. The marketing mix decision may include: Product – modifications are made and features are added in order to differentiate the product from competing products tat may have been introduced, Price – there are possible price reductions in response to competition while avoiding a price war. Distribution – new distribution channels and incentives to re-sellers n order to avoid losing self space. Promotion – emphasis on differentiation and building of brand loyalty. Incentives may be introduced at this stage to get competitors’ customers to switch. Decline stage At this stage, sales begin to decline as the market becomes saturated, the product becomes technologically obsolete, or customer taste change, if the product as developed brand loyalty, the profitability may be maintained longer. Init costs may increase with the declining production volumes and eventually no more profit can be made. During the decline stage, the firm has three options: †¢ Maintain the product with hope that competitors will exit. Reduce costs and find new uses for the product. †¢ Harvest it, reducing market support and coasting along until no more profit can be made. Discontinue the product when no more profit can be made or there is a successor product. The marketing mix may be modified as follows: Product – the number of products in the product line may be reduced. Rejuvenate surviving products to make them look new again. Price – prices may be lowered to liquidate inventory of discontinued products. Prices may be maintained for continued pr oducts serving a nice market. Distribution – it will become more selective. Channels that are no longer profitable are passed out. Promotion – expenditures are lower and aimed at reinforcing the brand image for continued products. MARKET SEGMENTATION Here, the suppliers will want to concentrate in a particular market. There are two important factors to consider when selecting a target market segment. These are the attractiveness of the segment and the fit between the segment and the firm’s objectives, resources and capabilities. † This is the process in which a company attempts to identify the categories of consumers whose needs and wants it can satisfy. In order to segment the market Companies first assess their capabilities and resources then they determine the competitive situation in the marketing environment. Finally they match their capabilities with the needs of the market segment. There is no single way of segmenting the market because their criteria used to segment the market depend on the individual organisations. The segmentation process involves several steps: †¢ You define the market usually based on the consumers needs †¢ Identify the best market segmentation criteria †¢ Apply the segmentation criteria and divide the market †¢ Analyse and understand the profile of the priority consumer segment (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007) Attractiveness of a market segment The following aspects can be considered when evaluating the attractiveness of a market segment: †¢ Growth rate in the segment †¢ Size of the segment †¢ Competition in the segment †¢ Attainable market share given promotional budget and competitors’ expenditures †¢ Required market share to break even Market research and analysis is essential to obtain this information. Te impact of micro and macro environmental variables on the market segment should be considered. Target market strategies Market specialisation – here the firm specialises in a particular market segment and offers that segment an array of different products Full market coverage – the firm attempts to serve the entire market. This coverage can be achieved by means of either a mass market strategy in which a single undifferentiated marketing mix is offered to the entire market, or by a differentiated strategy in which a separate marketing mix is offered to each segment. Product specialisation – Here the firm specialises in a particular product and tailors it to different market segments Selective specialisation – Here the different marketing mixes are offered to different segments. The product itself may or may not be different. The promotional messages or distribution channels may vary. Single segment strategy – Here one market segment is served with one marketing mix. A single segment approach often is the strategy of choice for smaller companies wit limited resources. BRAND A brand is a name or symbol used to identify the source of a product. (NetMBA,marketingbrand equity). Very successful brands have been known to become the generic name of a product. The design and implementation of an effective brand strategy can be considered in relation to the brand, product or the service offered. There are several brand strategies that can be applied, these include: †¢ Brand development strategy – used when the brand already exist †¢ Rebranding – when an existing brand is rebranded in line with the change in the market segmentation or competitive positioning strategy. †¢ Brand introduction – used when a new brand is introduced †¢ Brand extension (umbrella branding) – used when a new product that is unrelated to an existing product is introduced. (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007) The brand can add significant value when it is well recognised and as positive associations in the mind of the consumer. This concept is referred to as â€Å"Brand equity. † There are three perspectives from which to view brand equity: 1. Consumer- based: A strong brand increases the consumer’s attitude strength toward the product associated with the brand. Attitude strength is built by experience with a product. This importance of actual experience by the customer implies that trial samples are more effective than advertising in the early stages of building a strong brand. The consumer’s awareness and associations lead to perceived quality, inferred attributes, and eventually, brand loyalty. 2. Brand extensions: A successful brand can be used as a platform to launch related products. Te benefits of brand extensions are the leveraging of existing brand awareness thus reducing advertising expenditures, and a lower risk from the perspective of the customer. Appropriate brand extensions can enhance the core brand. Te value of the brand extension is however more difficult to quantify than are direct financial measures of brand equity. 3. Financial: One way to measure brand equity is to determine the price premium that a brands commands over a generic product. Strong brand equity provides the following benefits: . It is an asset that can be sold or leased 2. It Increases cash flow by increasing market share, reducing promotional costs, and allowing premium pricing. 3. It facilitates a more predictable income stream Building and managing brand equity In his 1989 paper, Managing brand Equity, Peter H. Farguhar outlines # the following three stages tat are required in order to build a strong brand: 1 . Introduction – in this stage, introduce a quality product with the strategy of using the brand as a platform from which to launch future products. A positive evaluation by the consumer is important. 2. Elaboration – make the brand easy to remember and develop repeat usage. There should be accessible brand attitude, that is, the consumer should easily remember his or her positive evaluation of the brand. 3. Fortification – the brand should carry a consistent image over time to reinforce its place in the consumer’s mind and develop a special relationship with the consumer. Brand extensions can further fortify the brand, but only with related products having a perceived fit in the mind of the consumer. Globalisation Marketing efforts can cross borders in a process known as internationalisation and globalisation. Internationalisation is when a firm starts to sell the products across the borders. Globalisation is a result of internalisation and it is shown by an increase in volumes and value of goods as well as the emergence of transnational segments of consumers with similar demand. (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007). The main factors influencing international marketing operations are: †¢ Good knowledge of the evolution of the international business environment †¢ The existing assets of the firm †¢ The capacity of managers †¢ To rapidly adapt the firm’s strategy to the continuous changes in international markets. (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007) There are three main international marketing orientations †¢ Domestic Market orientation – this is when you sell your service or products in a foreign markets that is very similar to the domestic market. †¢ The multi-national orientation – this is when a product or services adapts to the demands of each foreign market. †¢ Global orientation – it identifies the transnational segment of consumers in different foreign countries having similar needs and wants. (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007) The main challenge with globalisation is whether to adopt standardisation or adaptation theories in the marketing strategy. It has been argued that standardisation should be adopted because international markets have increasingly convergent needs and wants. However, standardisation does not allow for the local cultures to shape the preferences and in such cases the adaptation theory will work best. (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007) Ethics in marketing The ethical stance of an organisation can either promote or hinder the marketing strategy of an organisation. Ethical issues ranging from pay, pricing of goods to environmental issues affect the image of an organisation and can have a critical impact on an organisation’s brand. In order to combat the negative publicity, organisations can form ethical alliances with non-profit organisation taking the form of donations, cause-related marketing, event sponsorship, employee exchange and the provision of services. Such cause-related marketing strategies can be used to distinguish an organisation in the market place. (Ranchhod Gurau, 2007) Gender role and marketing In advertising, it has been found that the marketing to women and men especially in publication differ in terms of the type of products they advertise. Men products tend to promote lifestyle enhancing and professional appearance while women’s advertisements tend to promote self reflection and personal appearance (Graham and Gollop, 2003). Many brands in the market are said to posses gender bias. The bias helps leverage their ability to attract their male or female target group. This same trait works as a hindrance where the brand is trying to cross the gender divide (Jung and Lee, 2006). Findings show that depending on the race and gender of the magazine, the roles of the women and men changed. In women’s magazines, women appeared in subordinate roles most of the time and were considered more exposed then men although research has shown that these roles appear to be changing. Interestingly, depending on the magazine gender bias, men’s magazines had dominated in images of men and women’s magazines dominated in images of women (Graham and Gollop, 2003). In most the magazines, women appeared as sexual objects. Generic marketing strategy Porters has two main fundamental decisions that organisation need to adopt in order to gain competitive advantage. He proposed that organisations could compete on price and differentiation. The two strategies define the following four generic competitive strategies . 1. Overall price leadership – it provides products and services at lowest prices 2. Differentiation – offering a product or service with differentiated features. 3. Differentiation focus – segment the market then offer each segment a differentiated product. 4. Price focus – firstly, segment the market and offer the segment a low price (Mitchell,2010) Findings The playboy product life cycle Introduction – Playboy was introduced in 1953 with a $1000. 0 budget. The first publication had a circulation of 53991 copies and Marylyn Manroe was on the cover prior to her fame at a price of $0. 5 per issue. When this idea was launched, the logo was a stag, and the magazine was supposed to be called ‘Stag Growth stage –the playboy ‘bunny ‘was introduced and subsequently became the prima ry unchanged logo for the magazine. Maturity stage-in the 1970’s the playboy magazine had grown in popularity and this marked the best sales period of its circulation. The magazine grew into the playboy corporation and has under the umbrella name in addition to the magazine: Night clubs †¢ Casinos †¢ cosmetics Decline- given the negative publicity linked to the content of the playboy magazine, in the late 1970’s immediately after achieving its peak, their sales declined as a result of the rise of competitors such as penthouse (Trivialibrary. com, 2010). There was a 2-year ban on all explicit content magazines in the united states in the†¦ based on the speculation that magazine of that content was a health hazard. Maturity stage -to date the magazine has a notable goodwill and has accumulated in value. In 2002, the first issue of the playboy magazine was auctioned off for $5000. 0 showing that the magazine has accumulated value as a collectable. Market se gmentation The playboy magazine cast a wide web and segmented its market using geographical and gender based segmentation. The magazine is typically targeted at men aged between 18 and 80 years of age. However, the contents satisfied both the male and female market (Forbish, 2004). Brand The playboy brand is symbolised by a black bunny bearing a bow tie. It has immense goodwill and has been exploited and incorporated into several products such as jewellery, T-shirts printed etc. The magazine P has stars to indicate the level of circulation for that particular issue Major brand extensions include: lingerie, jewellery, TV shows, Clubs and Casinos. Globalization The playboy magazine has been published in over 50 countries worldwide with local publication and has shown a certain degree of popularity internationally. It sells more the 3million copies in the united states and 4. 5million copies around the world (Forbish, 2004). In addition, playboy has a website which has allowed that to reach an international market. Ethics There have been many ethical issues surrounding the magazine spanning from, exploitation of women to the lack of morals based in the sexual content of the magazine. However, they stand out from the rest because they show some moderation on their contents; †¢ they are not as explicit in both their magazine and web content †¢ their sit only shows nudity to viewers after they have acknowledged the content Marketing strategy The main aim of the playboy magazine was to sell a ‘lifestyle’ and not just sex and nudity. The idea was for the young man to feel like he was a member of a playboy lifestyle club (Forbish, 2004; Thompson, 2008). They show this by incorporating issues of interest to men including humorous and celebrity related content (Forbish, 2004). Between 1959 and 1961, Playboy had a television show ‘Playboy penthouse’ which supplemented in television what it offered as a publication. This show was not an easy success story because television at the time was related to feminism and usually show cased feminine products and shows (Thompson, 2008). The show offered the viewer a visual idea of what the playboy lifestyle was about: beautiful women, celebrities and partying (Thompson, 2008). They have a web page that was opened in 1994. It is currently the most visited site and highly successful magazine online sites. Its cyber store has a 2700 item catalogue and is responsible for a major portion of the playboy profit. Another major feature is the live feature which allows surfers access to view live events online. The ideas of the web site was not to lose sight of the playboy persona by strongly linking its contents and the quality to that of the magazine aimed at getting its visitors to buy into the playboy brand as well as other merchandise that they sell online (Forbish, 2004). When introducing the magazine, the pictures that were published in the magazine were of an upcoming icon Maryline Manroe which was to be used in a calendar. Playboy has been known for using celebrities such as Pamela Anderson in its covers. They also used award winning non sexual content interviews with famous figures to sell the magazine including Malxom X, Martin Luther King Jr. (Forbish, 2004). Discussion The playboy magazine is an ideal example of a magazine that stood the test of time. Starting in the 1950’s the magazine managed to capitalize on a basic need in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ‘Sex’. Considering the more conserving time era in which the magazine was launched, the minimal budget and the small circulation, the magazine has proven to be a success story. To date, the playboy brand is considered a symbol of status, fashion and personality (Chen and Wang, 2007) In terms of strategy, using semi naked women on the cover, to attract their ideal market segment was a good key strategy to attract readership; having the semi naked women being up and coming celebrities like Pamela Andersen was a genius idea this being key in attracting their target market; men aged between 18-80. This strategy was the key to the success if the magazine (Thompson, 2008). In terms of positioning, the playboy magazine has expressed intensely that they are not a ‘pornographic’ magazine and attest the idea that their content is purely sexual in nature (Schilowitz, 2004). They argue that their content is of interest to men and thus their articles will be male interest related; with men interests being women amongst other things. They show this by having in depth interviews with interesting key people in society including Malcom X. They push the idea that Playboy is in-fact a lifestyle of fun with a sexual connotation, which is why the extensions of the brand include casinos and clubs. In terms of ethics, the try to show that they are not pushing the men into reckless sex, they do not exploit women and they do have a certain level of conservative standard which they show by not fully exposing their women; and putting restrictions on their websites to inform their patrons about potential nudity in their sites. Conclusions In conclusion, the playboy brand is a successful entity, the name and logo has an international standing. Having graced that stands from the 1950’s to present day and stood the test of criticism, linking to the ‘pornographic market, defending its image as a lifestyle as opposed to a product the brand has been successful. In terms of segmentation, the ‘Playboy’ magazine had had a high success rate in reaching its target market while unintentionally attracting another segment in the market; women readers. It has successfully offered its readers more than just ‘sex’, it has offered its readers the ideal idea of what it means to be a man (Cox, 1961). Playboy has had a fair share of negative press about the ethics of the publication linked to the images of the women but this has had a little effect on the goodwill of their brand. In summation, the playboy brand has been marketed successfully and the application of the strategy has been well carried out. This has been done through effective segmentation, application of online marketing and globalization, application of ethics, effective use of goodwill on the brand as well as brand extensions. Recommendations The following recommendations could be applied: Given the current global HIV/AIDS pandemic, it would be in the interest to include in their articles talks about how best to avoid, prevent and stop the transmission of HIV/AIDS. Their articles should promote awareness and prevent stigmatization. References Chen Y and Wang X. (2007). Research on the legal protection of intellectual property right in clothing brand. Asian social science. Vol. 3 (2) pp 77-80 Cox H. (1961) Playboy’s Doctrine of Man. Christianity and Crises. Forbish T. 2004) Sexual Profiteering and Rhetorical Assuagement: Examining Ethos and Identity at Playboy. com. JCMC. Vol. 9 (3) Jung K. and Lee W. Cross-Gender Brand Extensions: Effects of Gender of the brand, Gender of consumer, and Product Type on Evaluation of Cross-Gender Extensions. Advances of Consumer Research. Vol. 33. pp 67-74. Graham R. and Gollop C. J. (2003) Gender Role Reinforcement in Popular Magazine Advertising. Dissertation from the University of North Carolina. United States. Schilowitz E. (2004) Dont Dare Associate Playboy With Porn: Playboy Enterprises, Inc. . Netscape. Communications Corporation. B. U. J. Sci and Teck L. Vol. 10 (2) Thompson E. (2008) The Parodic Sensibility and the Sophisticated Gaze : Masculinity and Taste in the Playboy Penthouse. Televisions and News Media. Vol. 9 (4) pp 284-304. Wind Y. J (1990) Positioning analysis and strategy. Interface of marketing strategy. Jai Press ———————– Assessing the marketing strategy of Playboy magazine Strategic Marketing MKT 762 Dr. Ayanda Group IV Modise Nengu 9903378 Oumi El-Kindiy 200302031 Dineo Mooketsi 9703200 How to cite Assessing the Marketing Strategy of Payboy Magazine, Essays

Hardys Ability To Create Mood And Atmosphere In T Essay Example For Students

Hardy?s Ability To Create Mood And Atmosphere In T Essay he Return Of The NatWith close reference to two or three moments in the text, discuss Hardys ability to create mood, atmosphere and a sense of place. Throughout The return of the native, Thomas Hardy is very successful in creating mood and atmosphere. Some scenes are so descriptive that a very clear mental picture can be formed by the reader, causing a distinct sense of place. It seems that through his words, Hardy is submerging the readers into his story letting us take part only as an onlooker. It is at the beginning that the strongest mood, the heaviest atmosphere and the most obvious sense of place occurs, as once the scene is set and the characters are introduced, scenery is much repeated. The book opens with an in-depth description of the heath. This is a perfect example of Hardys ability to clearly describe a scene, giving us a sense of place, situating us on the heath. This heath, although seemingly merely the geographic location of the story, plays a very significant role. The role and symbolism of the heath are truly explored through some of Hardys statements. The heavens being spread with this pallid screen, the earth with the darkest vegetation, their meeting-line at the horizon was clearly marked. This is highlighting the vivid contrast between the ground and the sky, leaving the reader with an image of the wild expanse of vegetation. Hardy describes the nature of the heath with the words It was at present a place perfectly accordant with mans nature neither ghastly, hateful, nor ugly: neither unmeaning, nor tame; but like man slighted and enduring. This is a description of the heath, which leaves the reader with a stronger sense of place, having now learned t o come to grips with the ambiguity of the image. He is also creating an atmosphere of mystery, of a silence that envelops the heath and the reader. Also Hardy creates a strange mood, he seems to be playing with immortality and an unchanging power when describing the scene. The sea changed, the fields changed, the rivers, the villages, and the people changed, yet Egdon remained. Throughout the whole of the first chapter, Hardy is creating a strong sense of place as well as establishing clearly the mood and atmosphere of Egdon Heath. Further on, although still at the beginning of the book, Hardy introduces the heath people. In this introduction, the various characters that will be important throughout the story appear the simplicity of their personalities being focused on by the author. It is at this first gathering round the fires that people are explored in depth, as before this incident, it is the heath that has taken the central position and therefore has had all of Hardys attenti on. The near complete darkness does not allow the reader to learn about the features of the people yet a clear understanding of the way they live, their customs and the place around them is achieved. Hardy uses these fires as a symbol, not only in this scene, but also in other chapters throughout the book. In this case, the fires are simple instruments of celebration yet they lead in to the core of the story. To describe the impact of the fire, Hardy uses rich images, to create both mood and atmosphere; those whom Nature had depicted as merely quaint became grotesque, the grotesque became preternatural; for all was in extremity. To describe the fire itself he uses the expression the nimble flames towered, nodded, and swooped through the surrounding air. The beauty of this image again leads the reader to feel that Hardy has created perfectly a sense of place, as well as exploiting the scenery to cause mood and atmosphere. .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 , .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .postImageUrl , .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 , .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:hover , .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:visited , .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:active { border:0!important; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:active , .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69 .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf03d478f0d357f322a2095d680938e69:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Poetry of A. E. Housman EssayAnother point in the text in which Hardys ease in creating both mood and atmosphere is shown is in chapter six of the first Book. In this, two of the main characters Eustacia and Wildeve, begin to thread the story, as it is from this first encounter that disaster finally envelops all the characters. At this first meeting, Hardy works mostly on the atmosphere both of the place and between the characters. Around her stretching the vast night atmosphere, whose incomplete darkness in comparison with the total darkness of the heath below it might have represented a venial beside a mortal sin. It is in this incomplete darkness that Eustacia waits for Wildeve, and it could be that Hardy is foretelling the end, this is the place where a venial sin may be seen to take place, and it leads to the tragic death of both characters, perhaps as a punishment. The whole of the chapter portrays Eustacia as being strong, her strength being used manipulatively at first; the little slave went on feeding the fire. He seemed a mere automaton, galvanized into moving and speaking by the wayward Eustacias will. This strength is complimented by her self-confidence, further on in the chapter; the fire-light shone full upon her face and throat, said with a majestic smile, have you ever seen anything better than that in your travels. Eustacia has the confidence to realise that she is beautiful and can use this beauty to her advantage. However, her strength is finally no use to her, and it is what could be seen as the weakest character, Thomasin, that achieves happiness. She is the only character that ends the story well, as with the death of Wildev e she is free to leave a Marriage where she was greatly unhappy and marry the reddleman. Hardy shows, throughout The return of The Native, that he is successful in drawing up images inside the readers mind. He creates mood and atmosphere easily with a varied use of description and contradicting images. He gives the reader a sense of place, by which it seems that although they are there, and know what is going to happen, there is no way they can help the characters. The reader is left close enough to feel most of the action, yet are powerless to intervene. This shows Hardy to be very successful in creating mood, atmosphere and a sense of place.

Photosynthesis Essay Example Essay Example

Photosynthesis Essay Example Paper Photosynthesis Essay Introduction Photosynthesis is the combination of sugar from light, carbon dioxide and water with oxygen being a waste product. This process is possibly the most important biochemical path known. Nearly everything in our everyday lives depends on this process, we would not be alive right now if it weren’t for this cycle, this is due to the fact that us humans breath in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, with plants it is the opposite; they take in carbon dioxide and take out oxygen, which we breathe in making it extremely important for us to have plants in order to respire.The process of photosynthesis is a very complex process.Here is a picture of an ordinary leaf. The leaf plays a major part in the process of photosynthesis, as it takes in the light which is later on made to glucosePhotosynthesis uses the energy of light to make glucose which keeps the plant alive. Just like we eat food to keep us alive and healthy, plants use the energy of the sun and water in order to stay alive an d healthy. Plants use the energy of light to make glucose to stay alive. Below is the general equation for the process of photosynthesis:6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ C6H12O6 + 6 O2Carbon Dioxide + Water + Light energy à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Glucose + OxygenThe rate of photosynthesis depends on four factors: carbon dioxide, light intensity, chlorophyll and water (or other photosynthetic pigments). In order to find out the importance of these factors for photosynthesis, some experiments are carried out.Aim: My main purpose or aim of this coursework is to find out whether photosynthesis relies on all factors or whether the process can function without the use of sunlight or carbon dioxide or water etc.Factors that may affect photosynthesisThere are five main factors that may affect the rate of photosynthesis they are:1. Light intensity2. Co2 concentration3. Effect of chlorophyll4. The effect of temperature (main chosen coursework factor)The experiments and how to undergo them1. Light Inten sityThe aim of this experiment is to find out whether or not the intensity of light would affect the rate of photosynthesis in a plant. To do this, I used a piece of foil which had a triangular shape in the middle of it and masked it on a plant where their was an exposed region and a shaded region.After three hours the leaf was picked, observed and tested with iodine solution, following is the result.ResultWe can clearly see that the masked area has turned brown whilst the unmasked area has turned dark blue.EvaluationThe masked part had given us a negative result to the iodine test which proves that there is no photosynthesis occurring if their is no light. Starch is available in the exposed region. This proves to us that photosynthesis can be carried out in the presence of light.ConclusionDuring this experiment we have concluded that photosynthesis almost mainly depends on the presence of light. If there is no light resource available photosynthesis will not occur forcing the plant to die.2. Carbon dioxide concentrationThe aim or purpose of this experiment is to prove that photosynthesis cannot function without carbon dioxide. The experiment will be as follows.Two pots of the same type of plants are prepared inside plastic bags, both are kept in the same temperature with the same light intensity, the only difference is that soda lime has been added to plant A whilst there is no soda lime in plant B.Plant APlant BAfter three hours, the leaves where picked up, observed and tested with iodine solution. Below are the results.Plant APlant BResultPlant A remains brown whilst plant b has turned to dark blue.EvaluationIn plant A the soda lime has absorbed most of the carbon dioxide. In the absence of carbon dioxide the iodine test is negative. Starch is not produced throughout the experiment which proves that photosynthesis cannot take place without carbon dioxide. This means that carbon dioxide is one of the factors that are needed for photosynthesis. However in pla nt b, carbon dioxide is present in the plastic bag. The plant can produce starch which the iodine test has proved to us as it scored a positive score.3. Effect of ChlorophyllMy aim here is to find out whether chlorophyll affects the rate of photosynthesis or not. To do this I will carry out the following experiment.A pot of variegated plant is destarched by putting into a dark environment for one to two days before the experiment. A variegated leaf is used for testing because part of the leaf contains chlorophyll (or other photosynthetic pigments) while the rest does not. One of the variegated leaves is selected and exposed to light.After three hours the leaf is picked up, observed and tested with iodine solution, the result is shown in the following diagram.ResultThe non-green region of the leaf has remained brown, whilst the green region of the leaf has turned dark blue.EvaluationStarch is present in the green region. This proves that photosynthesis can be carried out in the prese nce of chlorophyll. While the non-green region gives a negative result to the iodine test. This experiment has proved to us that chlorophyll does affect the rate of photosynthesis.4. The effect of temperatureThis is my main chosen point of interest throughout the coursework.AimOur main aim is to find out whether temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis in a Canadian pondweed (this is a picture of Canadian pondweed).ApparatusTo undergo the experiment we needed the following items and apparatus:1. Sprigs of pondweed2. Boiling tubes filled with water3. Lamp4. Thermometer5. Ice6. Supply of constant hot water7. Tissues8. Ruler9. Beaker10. Bubble counter11. Scissors12. Tweezers13. TimerSafetyAlthough this experiment may seem harmless we must take full precautions at all times to avoid any injury possible, below are some things we should bare in mind whilst performing the experiment to avoid serious damage or injury: Hot water can cause serious injury therefore we must be very wary a nd attentive to where we pour it. Scissors can also cause injury hence we should only stick to the task of cutting the pond weed not your partner’s hair. The lamp is supplied by electricity and we are dealing with water in this experiment, splashing water around could cause an electric shock.Following these safety tips will lead to a happy learning injury free environment.PredictionAccording to my knowledge and understanding of this experiment I strongly believe that temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis.I also predict that 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C should be the best temperature for the pondweed to photosynthesize, this is because I believe that this temperature is neither to hot nor too cold for the pondweed, hence it produces more bubbles, which represent oxygen.ResultsTemp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CExperiment 1Experiment 2Experiment 3Average125845.6672018161516.333034363836401491111.33501000.333AnalysisAccording to our results in we can clearly see that 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is the best tem perature for photosynthesis to take place. We know this because out of all the other four temperatures, 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is the most temperature that has produced the most bubbles. This is due to the fact that this temperature is neither too hot nor too cold it is the ideal temperature for photosynthesis to take place. Both 20à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C and 40à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C half produced approximately half the bubbles that 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C has produced, both temperatures have produced a decent number of bubbles but both are not as effective as 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C this is because 20à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is slightly cold which makes it more difficult for the pondweed to produce bubbles. 40à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C was not as effective as 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C because the temperature 40à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is somewhat hot and is not ideal for photosynthesis to take place in as the results have proven.The results have proven that 12à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is a temperature that negatively affects the rate of photosynthesis. It has been proven in the results to have released a low amount of bubbles during all 3 experiments; this is because this temperature is very low, too low for the pondweed to produce bubbles because it is too cold it may even die because of the cold temperature.We can clearly see from the result that out of all the five different temperatures 50à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C was the least temperature to produce bubbles. This is because this temperature is very hot, too hot for the pondweed to produce bubbles. These temperatures may be to hot for the pondweed to take, resulting in the pondweed dyeing hence it produces little or no bubbles.ConclusionAfter analyzing, looking and observing our results we have concluded that 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is the best temperature for photosynthesis to take place in plants. This is because this temperature is not too hot nor too cold for the plant to photosynthesize.We have also concluded that temperature does affect the rate of photosynthesis in a plant. As we have tested the rate of photosynthe sis at different temperatures and have come to realize that it plays an impact on the rate of photosynthesis which is represented in bubbles in this experiment.VariablesThere are some factors we must keep the same during the experiment to make it as fair as possible in order to get fair and accurate results, these factors are: Type of plant (we have used pondweed throughout the test). Volume of water. Lamp distance (the lamp was always 30cm away). All the experiments must be timed (5 minutes per experiment).Whilst there are factors we must change as part of the experiment to make it as fair as possible, they are: Surrounding temperature. Change the weed from the last experiment. You may think this factor is weird, but it is vital to change the pondweed in every experiment, this is just incase your pondweed has died because the last or present temperature is too hot or too cold. Therefore it is advised that you change the pondweed in every experiment.MethodThe method we used in order to undergo the experiment was basic and straight forward. We placed a standard pondweed in a testube filled with water, after diagonally cutting the end part of the weed in order to score sufficient and fair results.We placed this testube inside a beaker; this beaker was filled with water which varied in temperature according to what temperature we needed. We placed a lamp 30cm away from the plant, and after ensuring we had used the right temperature of water by using a thermometer, we began the timer and began to look closely for bubbles. After a period of five minutes we stopped counting the bubbles, the results are available in the results section of the coursework. Here is a diagram of the experiment.EvaluationI believe the experiment went well just as planned and worked out very well. I am confident about this because the results I got where the pretty much the same as the professional scientific results.I also believe that my results where accurate enough to prove that my pre diction was correct. As I predicted that 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C would be the most suitable temperature for photosynthesis to take place. We can see that this prediction is correct by looking at the graph.The method I used in order to carry out the experiment in my opinion was as fair as possible. I changed the pondweed every time in order to get a fair result, I also used the same volume of water each time to make sure that it does not effect the rate of bubbles released.If I had the opportunity to repeat the experiment I would try to measure the rate of photosynthesis at more temperatures, this would give me a clearer result and will indicate to me perfectly which temperature is most suitable for the most amount of bubbles given of from the Elodea. Photosynthesis Essay Thank you for reading this Sample!

ACT Score Comparison for SUNY Campuses

ACT Score Comparison for SUNY Campuses If youre wondering if you have the ACT scores youll need to get into one of the four-year SUNY colleges and universities, heres a side-by-side comparison of scores for the middle 50% of enrolled students. If your scores fall within or above these ranges, youre on target for admission to one of these public universities in New York State. SUNY ACT Score Comparison (mid 50%) School Composite25% Composite75% English25% English75% Math25% Math75% Albany 22 27 - - - - Alfred State 19 25 18 24 19 26 Binghamton 28 32 - - - - Brockport 20 25 18 24 18 25 Buffalo 24 30 - - - - Buffalo State - - - - - - Cobleskill - - - - - - Cortland 22 25 20 24 20 25 Env. Science/Forestry 23 29 22 27 22 29 Farmingdale 20 24 - - - - Fashion Institute - - - - - - Fredonia 21 27 - - - - Geneseo 24 28 - - - - Maritime College 22 27 - - - - Morrisville 16 20 - - - - New Paltz 24 29 22 27 23 30 Old Westbury - - - - - - Oneonta 21 26 20 25 19 25 Oswego 21 26 - - - - Plattsburgh 21 25 19 25 20 24 Polytechnic 20 28 23 30 25 30 Potsdam - - - - - - Purchase 21 28 22 32 19 26 Stony Brook 26 31 24 33 26 31 Keep in mind that the SAT tends to be much more popular than the ACT in New York State. Nevertheless, either exam is perfectly acceptable. Youll be at no disadvantage using the ACT, and you should use scores from the exam that you prefer. If your ACT scores are below the lower number in the table above, all hope is not lost. 25% of applicants who attend the SUNY school also had numbers in the bottom 25th percentile. Being admitted will be more challenging with a sub-par score, but it is not impossible. Also note that the admissions standards vary considerably from one campus to another. Binghamton University, for example, is highly selective and nearly all admitted students have both grades and standardized test scores that are well above average. Binghamton is one of the top colleges in New York State. Other campuses such as Morrisville and Cobleskill are far less selective. Your Academic Record Matters More than the ACT Realize that ACT scores are just one part of the application. The most important part of your SUNY application will be your academic record. Be sure you have adequate coursework in key academic areas such as a foreign language and math. Its also important to show that you have challenged yourself, so Advanced Placement (AP) classes, IB classes, Honors classes, and dual enrollment classes are all important for helping to demonstrate your college preparedness.   Holistic Admissions The SUNY admissions folks will also be looking at non-numeric measures, for the four-year colleges and universities in the SUNY network all have holistic admissions. A strong essay and meaningful extracurricular activities  can play an important role in the admissions process. At some campuses, special talents in areas such as sports or music can also help make up for standardized test scores that are less than ideal. Data Source: National Center for Education  Statistics

Canterbury Tales Analysis Essay Example for Free

Canterbury Tales Analysis Essay Physically the two characters appear extremely different. The knight is dressed in a fustian tunic, â€Å"Stained and dark with smudges where his armour had left mark† (Chaucer 5). Although he is a distinguished man, he dresses humbly and does not give the appearance of arrogance. It is also apparent that he carries a sword, which would match his profession as a knight because he is able to fight. The Sea Captain’s attire matches his occupation. He wears a â€Å"Woollen gown that [reaches] his knee† (Chaucer 15); he is tan and has a large beard. He carries a dagger, implying that he knows how to fight and defend himself like the Knight. Considering their occupations, one can find many similarities. They are both very proficient at their jobs. The Sea Captain is described as having no competition: â€Å"None from Hull to Carthage was his match† (Chaucer 16). He is experienced and knows the seas better than any captain. He is known for his skill at commanding his ship, the Maudelayne. He frequently travels the sea. Similarly, the knight is a traveler, except on land. He is an experienced fighter, as he has been in many battles. He was present at the battle where Alexandria was taken in 1365 by the King of Cyprus. In fifteen mortal battles he had been† (Chaucer 5). According to the examples of battles given in the text, the knight rarely loses a battle. He owns fine horses and is skilled at riding horseback. However, behavior is what really sets these two characters apart. The knight is a chivalrous man. He believes in truth, honor, and generosity. People look up to him; he is â€Å"Ever honoured for his noble graces† (Chaucer 4). A Christian and a virtuous man, he is even more humbled by his position as a knight. His many victories did not permit him to lose his modesty; instead, they led him to be wise and honorable. The Sea Captain, in contrast, is a fearsome character. When dealing with prisoners, â€Å"The nicer rules of conscience he ignored† (Chaucer 16); they walked the plank. Not a virtuous man by any means, he has a reputation of stealing goods from traders while they sleep. Those who fight him fear him. He does not have a high position in society, but his brutality and prudence make him successful in battle. He is revered for his skill and success, but people do not look up to him. In summary, the use of foil by Chaucer enables the reader to notice differences and similarities between the Knight and the Sea Captain. They have similar occupations, but different roles in society as well as nearly opposite personalities. The foil emphasizes their characteristics to make them even more prominent to the reader. For example, the knight’s Christian values make the Sea Captain seem extremely harsh and lowly in comparison. The reader will be able to gain more out of the story these characters tell because of how detailed their character sketches are. Specifically, the characters are given more depth by their similarities and differences to other characters in the tale. Canterbury Tales Analysis. (2018, Oct 17).

Interview question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Interview question - Essay Example Areas that have improvements over the national average will be highlighted along with weaknesses from observation as compared to the achievement scores. Development of goals begins with the production of a time management plan that consists of the required curriculum elements and how best to incorporate psychological principles of learning (such as social learning theory) into the classroom environment. Proper planning for social and cognitive learning must be developed into a goal-attainment plan. 2. Three month goals include an introduction of youth psychology into the learning plan that includes role modeling of teacher and high performing students so as to incorporate them into the classroom teaching structure. Previous primary research studies that found success in motivating youths in the concrete operational stage of development will be used as the foundation for teaching style in the first three months. The goal is to promote more group learning for the younger children to re duce egocentric behaviors common to this stage of development to improve the social environment and motivate retention. Students will be delivered a survey or questionnaire instrument with language developed appropriate for youths of these age brackets to identify key needs.

Week 7 Discussion Question 1 Effect of a Meger Assignment

Week 7 Discussion Question 1 Effect of a Meger - Assignment Example Progress Energy Company faced these challenges because it had failed for annual based revenue increase of 12% with North Carolinas Utilities Commission (Munson, 2011). Through the merger, shareholders will enjoy earnings accretion, based on adjusted diluted earnings per share. I believe the value will be realized on the stakeholders because of the growth of the corporation after the merger. Wald (2012) reveals that the new corporation has over seven million retail customers and owns about sixty seven gigawatts of generating capacity; this indicates a great growth in the corporation hence shareholders are going to benefit from the merged corporation due to increased profits than before merging. During merging, the less important company loses its identity and becomes part of the more important company, in terms of management the important company runs almost everything in the corporation (Duke Energy, 2012). In the merger between Duke Energy and Progress Energy, progress energy has been absorbed and become a subsidiary of duke energy. The headquarter of the corporation remains in Charlotte. The accounting approach used in the merger is aimed at upholding the corporations name; they retain the name of the corporation. By taking total control and absorbing the other company, the corporation is able to run well without opposition from the other company. Duke Energy. (2012). Mergers & Other Corporate Actions: Duke Energy/Progress Energy Merger Information. Retrieved 20 Nov. 2012 from http://www.duke-energy.com/investors/individual-investors/merger-spinoff-documents.asp. Wald, M. (2012). Duke and Progress Energy Become Largest U.S. Utility. The New York Times. Retrieved 21 Nov. 2012 from

Ap Psychology Review Packet Essay Example for Free

Ap Psychology Review Packet Essay Absolute Threshold:  the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. 2. Accommodation:  the process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far images on the retina. 3. Acetylcholine:  neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. 4. Achievement Motivation:  desire for accomplishment. 5. Achievement Test:  an exam designed to test what a person has earned. 6. Acoustic Encoding:  encoding of sound, especially words. 7. Acquisition:  the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. 8. Action Potential:  a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. 9. Activation Synthesis:  theory that REM sleep triggers neural firing that evokes random images, which our sleep brain weaves into stories. 10. Adaptation Level Phenomenon:  tendency to form judgements relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. 11. Adrenal Glands:  a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress. 12. Algorithm:  a methodical, logical rule that guarantees solving a particular problem. 3. Alpha Waves:  the relatively slow brain waves of an awake, relaxed state. 14. Amnesia:  loss of memory. 15. Amphetamines:  drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. 16. Amygdala:  two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. 17. Aphasia:  impairment of language caused by left hemisp here damage to Brocas area, impairing speaking, or Wernickes area, impairing understanding. 18. Applied Research:  scientific study that aims to solve practical problems 19. Aptitude Test:  designed to predict a persons future performance. 20. Association Areas:  areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary or sensory functions but in higher mental functions. 21. Associative Learning:  learning that certain events occur together. 22. Automatic Processing:  unconscious encoding of incidental information. 23. Autonomic Nervous System:  the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. 24. Availability Heuristic:  estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. 5. Axon:  the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles and glands. 26. B. F. Skinner:  a leading behaviorist; rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior. 27. Babbling Stage:  begins at 4 months; stage of speech development in which infant spontaneously utters various sounds. 28. Barb ituates:  drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system,  reducing anxiety  but impairing memory and judgement. 29. Basal Metabolic Rate:  bodys resting rate of energy expenditure. 30. Basic Research:  pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base 31. Behavior Genetics:  the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. 32. Behavioral Medicine:  integrates behavioral and medical knowledge to apply to health and disease. 33. Behaviorism:  the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental process. 34. Belief Perseverance:  clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis has been discredited. 35. Binocular Cues:  depth cues such as retinal disparity that depend on using two eyes. 36. Bio-Feedback:  electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state. 37. Biological Psychology:  a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. 38. Biopsychosocial Approach:  an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. 39. Blind Spot:  the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there. 40. Bottom-Up Processing:  analysis that starts with the sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information. 1. Brocas Area:  controls language expression; area of the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. 42. Cannon-Baird Theory:  emotion arousing stimulus triggers physiological response and subjective experience of emotion. 43. Case Study:  an observational technique in which one person id studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal princi ples. 44. Central Nervous System:  the brain and spinal cord. 45. Cerebellum:  the little brain at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input and coordinates movement output and balance. 46. Cerebral Cortex:  the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the bodys ultimate control and information-processing center. 47. Change Blindness:  failing to notice changes in the environment 48. Charles Darwin:  argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies. 49. Chunking:  organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. 50. Circadian Rhythm:  the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle 51. Classical Conditioning:  one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate future events. 2. Clinical Psychology:  a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats psychological disorders. 53. Cochlea:  a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger neural impulses. 54. Cochlear Implant:  device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded throug h the cochlea. 55. Cognition:  Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. 56. Cognitive Map:  mental representation of the layout of ones environment. 57. Cognitive Neuroscience:  the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition. 58. Cognitive Perspective:  how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information. 59. Color Constancy:  perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color either if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. 60. Complementary Alternative Medicine:  unproven healthcare treatments intended to supplement conventional medicine. 61. Conditioned Reinforcer:  a stimulus that gains reinforcing power through its association with the primary reinforcer. 62. Conditioned Response:  the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. 63. Conditioned Stimulus:  an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with US, triggers a response. 64. Conduction Hearing Loss:  hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. 65. Cones:  retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight of well-lit conditions. 66. Confirmation Bias:  a tendency to search for information that backs ones own beliefs. 67. Consciousness:  our awareness of ourselves and our environment. 68. Content Validity:  extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest, 69. Continuous Reinforcement:  reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs. 70. Control Group:  the group that is not exposed to the treatment in an experiment. 71. Coping:  alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. 72. Corpus Callosum:  axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. 73. Correlation:  a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. 74. Correlation Coefficient:  a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) 75. Counseling Psychology:  a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being. 76. Critical Thinking:  thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. 77. Culture:  the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one culture to the next. 78. Delta Waves:  the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. 79. Dendrite:  the bushy, branchy extensions of a neuron that receive message and conduct impulses towards the cell body. 0. Dependent Variable:  the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. 81. Depressants:  drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. 82. Difference Threshold:  the minimum difference between stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. 83. Discrimination:  learned ability to distinguish between CS and stimuli that do not signal a US. 84. D issociation:  a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. 85. Dopamine:  neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention and emotion. 86. Double-Blind Procedure:  an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant as to whether the group has received a treatment or a placebo. 87. Drive-Reduction Theory:  physiological need; creates an aroused tension state, a drive, that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. 88. Dual Processing:  the principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks 89. Echoic Memory:  momentary sensory memory of an auditory stimuli. 0. Ecstasy (MDMA):  a synthetic stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. Produces Euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurans and to mood and cognition. 91. Edward Titchener:  father of structuralism. 92. Effortful Processing:  encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. 93. Electroencepha logram (EEG):  an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brains surface. 94. Emotion:  response of the whole organism involving psychological arousal, expressive behavior and conscious experience. 95. Emotion-Focused Coping:  Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs relating to ones stress. 96. Encoding:  the processing of information into the memory system by extracting meaning. 97. Endocrine System:  the bodys slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. 98. Endorphins:  morphine within natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. 99. Environment:  every non-genetic influence. 100. ESP:  claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. 101. Estrogen:  the primary female sex hormone. 102. Evolutionary Psychology:  the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. 103. Experiment:  a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. 104. Experimental Group:  the group that is exposed to the treatment in an experiment. 105. Explicit Memory:  memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; stored in hippocampus. 106. Extinction:  diminishing of CR; occurs in classical conditions when US does not follow CS. 07. Extrinsic Motivation:  desire to perform to receive rewards or avoid punishment. 108. Factor Analysis:  a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items, called factors, on a test. 109. Feature Detectors:  nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle or movement. 110. Feel-Good Do-Good Phenomena:  tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. 111. Figure-Ground:  organization of visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. 112. Fixation:  inability to see a problem from a new perspective. 113. Fixed-Interval Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. 114. Fixed-Ratio Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces only after specified number of responses. 115. Flashbulb Memory:  a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. 116. Flow:  a completely involved, focused state of consciousness resulting from optimal engagements of ones skills. 117. fMRI:  a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity shows brain function. 118. Fovea:  the central focal point in the retina, around which the eyes cones cluster. 19. Framing:  the way an issue is posed. 120. Fraternal Twins:  twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than a brother or sister. 121. Frequency:  the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. 122. Frequency Theory:  in hearing, the theory that the rate of neural impulses traveling u p the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. 123. Freuds Wish-fulfillment:  theory that dreams provide a psychic safety valve for expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings. 124. Frontal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscles movement, making plans and judgement. 125. Functional Fixedness:  the tendency to think of things only in their usual function. 126. Functionalism:  a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish. 127. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid):  a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. 128. Gate-Control Theory:  theory that spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain. 29. Gender Identity:  our sense of being male or female. 130. Gender Role:  a set of expectations for either males or females. 131. Gender Typing:  the acquisition of a traditional male or female role. 132. General Adaptation Syndrome:  Selyes concept of bodys adaptive response to stress; alarm, resistance, exhaustion. 133. General Intelligence:  general intell igence factor, according to Spearman, underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test. 134. Generalization:  tendency after response has been conditioned for similar stimuli to elicit similar responses. 135. Genome:  the complete instructions for making an organism. 136. Gestault:  organized whole; tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. 137. Glial Cells:  cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. 138. Glutamate:  a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory. 139. Grouping:  perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups based on proximity, similarity, continuity and connectedness. 140. Hallucinations:  false sensory experiences. 141. Hallucinogens:  drugs taht distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. 142. Health Psychology:  sub-field of psychology; provides psychologys contribution to behavioral medicine. 143. Heritability:  the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. 144. Heuristic:  a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make strategies and solve problems quickly. 145. Hierarchy of Needs:  Mazlows pyramid of human needs; begins with physiological needs which must be met before higher goals can be attained. 146. Higher-Order Conditioning:  procedure where conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new, neutral stimulus, creating a new Conditioned Stimulus. 47. Hindsight Bias:  the tendency to believe that, after learning the outcome, one would have foreseen it. 148. Hippocampus:  a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage. 149. Homeostasis:  tendency to maintain a state of balance. 150. Hormones:  chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endo crine glands. 151. Hue:  the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of the light. 152. Humanistic Psychology:  historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individuals potential for personal growth. 53. Hypothalamus:  a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. 154. Hypothesis:  a testable prediction. 155. Iconic Memory:  a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. 156. Identical Twins:  twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, creating two genetically identical organisms. 157. Illusory correlation:  the perception of a relationship where none exists. 158. Implicit Memory:  retention independent of conscious recollection; stored in cerebellum. 159. Inattentional Blindness:  failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere 160. Incentive:  a positive or negative environmental stimulus. 161. Independent Variable:  the experimental factor which is directly manipulated. 162. Industrial Organizational Psychology:  using psychological concepts to optimize behavior in work places. 163. Information Processing:  theory that dreams help us sort out the days events and consolidate our memories. 164. Infradian Rhythm:  long-term cycle; greater than a day 65. Inner Ear:  the inner most part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. 166. Insight:  sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem. 167. Insomnia:  recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. 168. Instinct:  a complex behavior rigidly patterned throughout the species and is unlearned. 169. Int ensity:  the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we can perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the waves amplitude. 170. Interaction:  the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another. 171. Interneurons:  neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs. 172. Intrinsic Motivation:  desire to perform for its own sake. 173. Intuition:  effortless, immediate feeling or thought. 174. Iris:  a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. 175. James-Lange Theory:  emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. 176. Kinesthesis:  system for sensing the position and movement of individual body movements. 77. Latent Content:  according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. 178. Latent Learning:  learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. 179. Law of Effect:  Thorndikes principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by negative consequences become less likely. 180. Len s:  the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. 181. Lesion:  destruction of the brain tissue. 182. Levels of Analysis:  the differing complementary views for analyzing any iven phenomenon. 183. Limbic System:  neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. 184. Lingusitic Determinism:  Whorfs hypothesis that language determines the way we think. 185. Long-Term Memory:  relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. 186. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):  increase in synapse-s firing potential after rapid stimulation; the neural basis for learning and memory. 187. LSD:  a powerful hallucinogenic drug; alsdo known as acid. 188. Lymphocytes:  the two types of white blood cells that are part of the immune system. 189. Manifest Content:  according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream. 190. Mean:  the arithmetic average of a distribution. 191. Median:  the middle score in a distribution. 192. Medulla:  the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. 193. Mental Age:  measure of test performance devised by Binet; chronological age that typically correlates with a given age. 194. Mental Set:  tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often one that has been successful. 195. Methamphetamine:  a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system and appears to drop base dopamine levels over time. 96. Middle Ear:  the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochleas oval window. 197. Mirror Neurons:  frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when performing another doing so; this may enable imitation or empathy. 198. Misinformation Effect:  incorporating misleading information into ones memory. 199. Mnemonics:  memory aids. 200. Mode:  the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. 201. Modeling:  observing and imitating a specific behavior. 202. Monocular Cues:  depth cues available to either eye alone. Includes relative height, relative size, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadow, and relative motion. 203. Mood Congruent Memory:  tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current mood. 204. Morpheme:  the smallest unit that carries meaning. 205. Motivation:  a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. 206. Motor Cortex:  an area at the rear if the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. 207. Motor Neurons:  neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. 208. MRI:  a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. 209. Mutation:  a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. 210. Myelin Sheath:  a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed. 211. Narcolepsy:  a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. 212. Natural Selection:  inherited trait variations contributing to survival and reproduction will be passed on to succeeding generations. 13. Naturalistic Observation:  observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. 214. Nature-Nurture issue:  controversy over contributions of genes vs. experience 215. Near-death Experience:  an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to dru g-induced hallucinations. 216. Negative Reinforcement:  increasing behaviors by stopping a negative stimuli. 217. Neo-Freudian Theory:  theory that dreams can be used as a coping mechanism to deal with past events. 218. Nerves:  bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. 219. Nervous system:  the bodys speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. 220. Neurogenesis:  the formation of new neurons. 221. Neuron:  a nerve cell; the basic building block of he nervous system. 222. Neurotransmitters:  chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. 223. Night Terrors:  a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. 24. Norepinephrine:  neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. 225. Normal Curve:  a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data. 226. Observational Learning:  learning by observing others. 227. Occipital Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive informatio n from the visual fields 228. One-Word Stage:  from age 1 to 2; when a child speaks in single words. 229. Operant Behavior:  Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. 230. Operant Chamber:  a chamber / Skinner Box containing a bar that an animal can manipulate to obtain water or food. 231. Operant Conditioning:  type of learning in which behavior is strengthened followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher. 232. Operational Definition:  a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. 233. Opiates:  opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. 234. Opponent-Process Theory:  the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. 35. Optic Nerve:  the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. 236. Organizational Psychology:  part of IO Psychology; examines psychological influences o worker satisfaction and productivity. 237. Overconfidence:  tendency to be more confident than correct. 238. Parallel Processing:  the processing of many aspects of a problem simu ltaneously. 239. Parapsychology:  study of paranormal phenomena. 240. Parasympathetic Nervous System:  the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 241. Parathyroids:  help regulate the level of calcium in the blood 242. Parietal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top/rear of the head; receives sensory input for touch and body position. 243. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:  Reinforcing a response only part of the time. 244. Perception:  the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. 245. Perceptual Adaptation:  in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field. 246. Perceptual Set:  mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. 247. Peripheral Nervous System:  the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. 248. Personnel Psychology:  focuses on recruitment, selection and placement of employees. 249. PET Scan:  a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. 250. Phoneme:  the smallest distinctive sound unit. 251. Physical Dependence:  a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued 252. Pitch:  a tones experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. 53. Pituitary Gland:  the endocrine gland systems most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. 254. Place Theory:  in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochleas membrane is stimulated. 255. Placebo Effect:  experimental results caused b y expectation alone. 256. Plasticity:  the brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage of by building new pathways based on experience 257. Polygraph:  lie detector machine; measures responses to emotion. 58. Pons:  part of the brainstem that helps coordinate movements. 259. Population:  all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples can be drawn. 260. Positive Reinforcement:  increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli. 261. Posthypnotic Suggestion:  a suggestion, made during a hypnotic session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized. 262. Predictive Validity:  the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. 263. Primary Reinforcer:  an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. 264. Priming:  the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing ones perception, memory, or response. 265. Pro-Social Behavior:  positive, constructive behavior. 266. Proactive Interference:  the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. 267. Problem-Focused Coping:  attempting to alleviate stress by changing the stressor or how we interact with that stressor. 268. Prototype:  a mental image or best example of a category. 269. Pshchological Dependence:  a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions. 270. Psychiatry:  a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders. 271. Psychoactive Drug:  a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. 272. Psychodynamic Perspective:  how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts 273. Psychology:  the study of behavior and mental processes. 274. Psychoneuroeimmunology:  study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system. 275. Psychophysics:  the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. 276. Psychophysiological Illness:  mind-body illness; any stress-related physical illness, including hypertension. 277. Pupil:  the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. 278. Random Assignment:  assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the two groups. 279. Random Sample:  a sample that fairly represents a given population. 280. Range:  The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. 281. Recall:  measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. 82. Recognition:  measure of memory in which the person only identifies items previously learned. 283. Reflex:  a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus. 284. Rehearsal:  conscious repetition of information, either for maintenance or encoding. 285. Reinforcer:  an event that strengthens behavior. 286. Relative Deprivation:  perception that one is worse off relative to those you compare yourself to. 287. Relearning:  a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. 288. Reliability:  extent to which a test yields consistent results. 89. REM Rebound:  the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. 290. REM sleep:  rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. 291. Replication:  repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic findings extend to other participants and circumstances. 292. Representativeness Heuristic:  judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes. 293. Respondent Behavior:  occurs as automatic response to some stimulus. 294. Reticular Formation:  a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. 295. Retina:  the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye. 296. Retinal Disparity:  a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing the images of the retinas from the two eyes. 297. Retrieval:  process of getting information out of storage. 298. Retroactive Interference:  the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. 299. Reuptake:  a neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron. 300. Rods:  retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray. 301. Savant Syndrome:  condition in which a person is limited in mental ability but has exceptional specific skill. 302. Scatterplots:  a graphed cluster of dots, the slope of which helps predict the direction of the relationship between the two variables. 303. Selective Attention:  the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimuli 304. Semantic Encoding:  encoding of meaning. 305. Semantics:  set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words and sentences. 306. Sensation:  the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. 07. Sensorineural Hearing Loss:  hearing loss caused by damage to the cochleas receptor cells or to the auditory nerves. Also called nerve deafness. 308. Sensory Adaptation:  diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. 309. Sensory Cortex:  area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensa tions. 310. Sensory Interaction:  principle that one sense may influence another; smell of food influences its taste. 311. Sensory Memory:  immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory. 12. Sensory Neurons:  neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. 313. Serial Position Effect:  the tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. 314. Serotonin:  neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. 315. Set Point:  the point where someones weight thermostat. 316. Shaping:  an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to the desired behavior. 317. Short-Term Memory:  activated memory that holds a few items briefly. 318. Sigmund Freud:  Austrian neurologists who founded psychoanalysis. 319. Signal Detection Theory:  a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background noise. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a persons experience, expectations, motivation and level of fatigue. 320. Sleep Apnea:  a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. 321. Social Leadership:  group oriented leadership that builds teamwork and offers support. 322. Social Learning Theory:  the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished. 323. Social-cultural Perspective:  how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures 324. Somatic Nervous System:  the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the bodys skeletal muscles. 325. Source Amnesia:  attributing the wrong source to an event we have experienced; at the heart of many false memories. 326. Spacing Effect:  tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better retention that massed study or practice. 327. Split Brain:  a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them. 328. Spontaneous Recovery:  Reappearance after a pause of an extinguished CR. 329. Standard Deviation:  a computed measure of how much the scores vary around the mean score. 330. Stanford-Binet:  widely used American revision of Binets original intelligence test. 331. Statistical Significance:  a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. 332. Stereotype Threat:  self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotypes. 333. Stimulants:  drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. 334. Storage:  retention of encoded information. 335. Stress:  how we perceive and respond to stressors that we appraise as threatening or challenging. 336. Structuralism:  an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind. 337. Structured Interviews:  asking the same questions of all applicants and rating on the standard scale. 338. Subjective Well-Being:  self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. 339. Subliminal:  below ones absolute threshold for conscious awareness. 340. Survey:  a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a group. 341. Sympathetic Nervous System:  the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. 342. Synapse:  the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. 343. Syntax:  rules for combining words into sensible sentences. 344. Task Leadership:  goal oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes leadership and focuses on goals. 345. Telegraphic Speech:  early speech stage where child speaks like a telegram; uses nouns and verbs. 46. Temporal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying above the ears; receives auditory information 347. Testosterone:  the most important of male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex char acteristics during puberty. 348. Thalamus:  the brains sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. 349. THC:  the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. 350. Theory:  an explanation that organizes behavior and predicts future outcomes. 351. Threshold:  the level of stimulation necessary to trigger a neural impulse. 352. Thyroid Gland:  affects metabolism, among other things 353. Tolerance:  the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses of the drug before experiencing the drugs effects. 354. Top-Down Processing:  information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. 55. Transduction:  conversion of one form of energy into another. 356. Two_Word Stage:  beginning at age 2; child speaks in 2 word statements. 357. Two-Factor Theory:  called Schachter-Singer Theory; to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal. 358. Type A:  competitive, hard-driving, impatient. 359. Type B:  easy-going, relaxed people. 360. Ultradian Rhythm :  short-term cycle; less than a day 361. Unconditioned Response:  the unlearned naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. 362. Unconditioned Stimulus:  a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response. 363. Validity:  extent to which a test measures what its supposed to measure. 364. Variable-Interval Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after random number of responses. 365. Variable-Ratio Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. 366. Vestibular Sense:  sense of body movement and position including balance. 367. Visual Cliff:  lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. 368. Visual Encoding:  encoding of picture images. 369. Watson and Rayner:  famous for their Little Albert experiment. 370. Wavelength:  the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. 371. Webers Law:  the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage. 372. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale:  most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and non-verbal sub-tests. 373. Wernickes Area:  controls language reception; a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression in left temporal lobe. 74. Wilhelm Wundt:  known as father of experimental psychology; established the first psychology laboratory. 375. Withdrawal:  the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. 376. Working Memory:  a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information and of informa tion retrieved from long-term memory. 377. X-Chromosome:  the sex chromosome found in both men and women. 378. Y-Chromosome:  the sex chromosome found only in men. 379. Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory:  the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors red, green and blue. absolute threshold:   The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. 2. accommodation:   The process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. 3. accommodations:   Adapting ones current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. 4. acetylcholine:   A neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction. 5. acoustic encoding:   The encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words. . acquisition:   The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. 7. action potential:   A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down a n axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axons membrane. 8. activation synthesis hypothesis:   Theory to describe dreaming that explains dreaming as being random neural activity hat the brain tries to make sense of. 9. acuity:   The Sharpness of vision. 10. addictions:  dependency to drugs comes about from potentially one use of the substance were the body can build up dependence to the substance. 11. adolescence:   The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. 12. adrenal glands:   A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. 13. ll or nothing law:   Increasing the stimulus above the threshold will not increase the action potential intensity. The neurons action is an all or nothing response; it either wi ll fire or it will not. The strength of the stimulus does not effect action potentials speed. 14. alpha waves:   The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. 15. alzheimers disease:   A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally physical functioning. 16. amnesia:   The loss of memory 17. mygdala:   Two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. 18. assimilation:   Interpreting ones new experience in terms of ones existing schemas. 19. association areas:   Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. 20. associative learning:   Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (a s in operant conditioning). 1. attachment:   An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. 22. audition:   The sense of hearing 23. automatic nervous system:   The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. 24. automatic processing:   Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. 25. xon:   The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. 26. barbiturates:   Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement. 27. basiler membrane:  within the cochlea of the inner ear is a stiff structural element that separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea, the scala media and the scala tympani. 28. behavioral genetics:   The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. 29. Behavioral Psychology:  a branch of psychology that focuses on how we learn from observable responses. An individuals response to different environment stimuli shapes our behaviors. 30. Behaviorism:  The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree that psychology should be an objective science but do not think that it should be without reference to mental processes. 31. behaviorism:   The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. For example, intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. 193. opiates:   Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. 194. opponent-process theory:   The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green 195. optic nerve:   The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. 96. parallel processing:   The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. 197. parallel processing:   The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of informatio n processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscience problem solving. 198. Parasympathetic nervous system:   The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 199. parietal lobes:   The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. 200. Peripheral nervous system:   The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. 201. PET:   A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. 202. Phenotype:   An organisms physical characteristics is its phenotype.